STUDIES HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL.*

IN this volume Professor Villari has collected seven essays, of which much the longest is that on the old question whether history is a science or an art. The others are all on Italians of different ages and different degrees of distinction,—Cavour, Savonarola (on whom Professor Villari is, of course, the supreme authority), Donatello, Luigi Settembrini, Francesco de Sanctis, the critic, and Domenico Morelli, the painter. We do not know how long ago Professor Villari wrote the essay, "Is History a Science ? " but we should fancy not within the last fifteen years. The question has always been of a professional rather than a general interest. Occasionally —when the "spirit of the times" is favourable more than for any other discoverable reason—it leaps into a significance which students of history are disinclined generally to allow to it. It leaped for the first time into importance when the publication of Buckle's History of Civilisation made people define history in the terms of an exact antithesis. "History," they said, "is either a science, as Buckle tells us, and, being a science, is capable of producing exact results by the proper application of statistics and the other instruments of exact thinkers; or, if it is not a science, it is inexact and must be an art,—that is to say, literature. One of these two things it must be. Nothing else is possible." In normal frames of mind historians, as it seems to us, prefer to fall in with the non-professional point of view. They regard the problem, "Is history a science ? " as one almost fit for an ancient Greek inventor of unanswerable puzzles, and are content to judge and to be guided in their own work by instinct and great examples. Green's Short History is a fine achievement,—it is history for the ordinary man and the ordinary woman at its best. But is it science or is it art ? Who cares ? The youngest generation of historians, we • Studies Historical and Crittcal. By Pasquale Villari. London : T. Fisher Unwin. [13s. net.)

fancy, cares little for such an academic problem. So long as research is being pursued, and the statement of its results is made readable, all is well. "One often," says Professor Villari, "speaks of amusing history, of delightful history,

without reflecting that this is only another name for untrue history." But is it so always ? Is not J. R. Green delightful ? Are not the fragments of Lord Acton's polished style and accomplished judgments delightful ? Is there not delight as well as truth in the work of such a very modern historian as Mr. Fletcher, whose introductory work on English history we noticed here the other day ? One cannot con- demn what is entertaining simply because Macaulay and Thackeray and Froude had the defects of their attractive methods. Nor does Professor Villari reject what is amusing from his own excellent work. But the fact is that his mind is predominantly critical, and that habit of mind always has an incomplete sympathy with the imaginative or inventive faculties. Fundamentally it mistrusts them, and that is why it cannot help torturing itself with questions. We doubt whether Professor Seeley, though he made a very necessary plea for scientific method in his Expansion of England, had in his mind nearly so sharp a distinction between the scientific and literary methods as Professor Villari supposes. That ' both science and literature are required in history, as Ranke said, was proved surely enough by the good appetite with which the public, not only of Britain, but of civilised Europe, devoured the novels of Sir Walter Scott. They seized them like something which had been too long withheld. We have only space to say further on this subject that Professor Villari, who himself holds by the "scientific method," gives us a conspicuously fair summary of the arguments on both sides, and he readies his own conclusions, not by a theoretical argu- ment, but by most ably dissecting the chief transformations through which history has passed.

Of the other essays, we were most interested by that on

Cavour. But it is worth while to note in passing that Professor Villari gives reasons for his bold statement that

Francesco de Sandia was the greatest critic Italy has ever produced. Professor Villari was a pupil of Sanctis, and we may be forgiven if we trace in his judgment some amiable hero-worship. He does a most friendly and valuable service, however, to British students in placing before them such short biographies as we have here of some Italians whose fame is almost confined to their own country. The point of the Cavour essay is that it gives—taking it from some recently published letters—an account of the early life of Cavour, about which so little is known. For Englishmen, and probably for

most Italians, the history of Cavour begins when be left his estates and his agriculture and plunged into the high politics of the revolutionary movement. Great needs call forth great men, and the march of Italy to freedom brought to the front some of the noblest spirits of last century. It will always be a satisfaction to Englishmen to reflect that their country recognised those men at the time. It is very interesting to trace in Cavour the youthful preparations for the part to which be was destined; and yet, as Professor Villari truly says, if the

circumstances had not absolutely exacted his presence he might have remained all his life cultivating his rice-

fields. When he was fourteen years old and was advised to study mathematics, he answered: "The world moves; nowadays one must study political economy instead of mathe- matics. I hope to see my country under a Constitutional Government. Who knows if some day I might not be a Cabinet Minister ? " He became a Royal page-in-waiting, and disliked the occupation. Afterwards he became a Lieutenant of the Engineers. When he was twenty be wrote to an English friend, Mr. Brockden, and congratulated him

on the fall of the Tory Government :—

" Every Englishman who loves humanity as you love it must have blushed to see an audacious faction trampling on national rights and supporting the 'Holy Alliance' ! But while the rest of Europe is moving, my poor Italy, alas ! remains crushed beneath the weight of political and religious oppression. Tell your compatriots that we Italians are not unworthy of freedom, for, although certain members of our body be decayed, there are men among us who deserve to enjoy the fruits of progress."

So far he was plainly cherishing the dreams of an ambitious youth; but his bent was curiously changed by the death of an

uncle:—

" For two entire days Cavour stood by this uncle's bedside. At the last hour, however, the attendant clergy forced him to leave the room, fearing lest earthly affections should distract the dying man from thoughts of heaven. This proceeding was bitterly resented by him. In fact, when writing to Count G. G. de Sellon on the 19th of December, 1831, he said : Hffias, lea pretres ont voulu nous oter nOtre derniere consolation, et nous empecher de mourir dans lea bras de ceux qui nous sent chers.' And after describing the cruel grief felt by the family, he adds, that in following two relations [his uncle and a great-uncle] to the grave in such rapid succession he had been impressed by the vanity of human ambitions, and confirmed in his resolve to renounce every dream of winning fame or glory. 'Yet I cannot refrain from supporting liberal ideas with the same ardour, though no longer hoping, and scarcely wishing, to gain renown by so doing. I shall continue to support them from love of truth, from sympathy with mankind."

Nevertheless, as though directed by fate, Cavour continued to prepare himself for his great work in the cause of libera- tion :- "It cannot seem surprising if, under the weight of these bereavements, and holding the political views which he so freely expressed, Cavour should have refused to retain his position in the Piedmontese army of that period. In fact, he had already sent in his papers, and his resignation was accepted on the 12th of November, 1831. For, as we learn from a letter sent him by Baron Cassio, one of his fellow-officers, his strongest wish at that time was to become thoroughly Italian (critatianismarsi). His friend Cassio warmly favoured this idea, 'as the best means of making himself worthy of the holy cause we have at heart,' advising him, meanwhile, to study Italian history, the Italian language, and to reside in Tuscany for a time. But he also urged him not to neglect public affairs, inasmuch as some business training was needful; for should the regeneration of Italy be effected, he might be required to act as one of the architects of the new State, a duty that could not be entrusted to any of those who had merely overthrown the old system."

We cannot quote further, but commend the reader to this delightful scrap of biography. The whole volume is com- petently translated, though in its English dress it has lost distinction. There are several good illustrations. On coming to the portrait of Cavour the reader will be almost tempted to wonder whether a photograph of Mr. Birrell has not been inserted by mistake. The likeness is certainly rather striking.