SPECTATOR'S LIBRARY.
POLITICAL ECONOMY,
Over-Population and its Remedy ; or an Inquiry into the Extent and Causes of the Distress prevailing among the Labouring Classes of the British Islands, and into the Means of Remedying it. By William Thomas Thornton... Longman and Co.
ARCHROLOO1CAL LITZEATUKE,
Essays on Subjects connected with the Literature, Popular Superstitions, and History of England, in the Middle Ages. By Thomas Wright, M.A., F.S.A., &c. In two volumes Russell smae• FicTioN, Peers and Parvenus ; a Novel. By Mrs. Gore, Author of " Mothers and Daughters," "Story of a Royal Favourite," &c. In three volumes. Colburn.
THORNTON ON OVER-POPULATION AND ITS REMEDY.
Tim object of this book is to test the reality of the over-population of which we hear so much ; and, finding that it actually exists, to trace its history and suggest a remedy. Laying down the definition, that over- population is a " deficiency of employment for those who live by labour, or a redundancy of the labouring class above the number of persons that the fund applied to the remuneration of labour can maintain in comfort," Mr. Thornton proceeds to apply his principle by testing it with well- selected facts from official or received statistics. The result of his in- quiries leads him to the conclusion that the urban population of Eng- land is scarcely in excess, and but for the influx from the country and from Ireland, might be deficient. Although many cases of great misery may be picked out, yet improvidence, vice, sickness, accidents, and the premature death of the father of a family, will always produce a large amount of distress, which cannot properly be attributed to over- population. In the Northern counties, in Lincolnshire, and in Rutland- shire, Mr. Thornton considers the agriculturists not in excess : at least they are pretty comfortable ; a family often receiving, "in meal or malt," about eighteen shillings a week. In all the other counties the rural population are clearly in excess ; in some counties—as in Dorset- shire and Wiltshire—the labourers are reduced to the lowest stage of misery. The Lowland Scotch Mr. Thornton seems to consider in a healthy state ; in fact, perfection itself, were it not for the influx of High- landers and Irish, to which he attributes the misery that he cannot deny in Glasgow,—though Edinburgh and probably other large towns are pro- portionately as bad. Respecting Ireland, of course, he has no doubt; but his review will be found curious, and almost novel, from the comparative exhibition—the gradations of misery in the provinces, till we reach the ne plus ultra of Connaught.
This inquiry into the over-population of the United Kingdom is fol- lowed by a brief review of the condition of the labouring classes through- out Europe except the Peninsula; in which Mr. Thornton comes to a conclusion as to their comfort, that, we fear, cannot be supported unless in a few exceptional cases. His next topic, the history of the British peasantry, is treated pretty much upon the same principle—that "distance lends enchantment to the view." Mr. Thornton paints the Anglo-Saxon times en beau ; and is in ecstasies with the Anglo-Norman period, espe- cially from the first Edwards to the accession of the house of Tudor. His sole evidence of all this is a well-known passage in Fortescue's panegyric on the Laws of England, and the Statutes of Labourers, passed to regu- late wages and sumptuary expenses. But the counterpart of the modern agricultural labourers was in those days the villains, who would not be in the receipt of money wages ; and one need only read the speeches and declarations of the whilom slave-owners and present Protectionists to know how little credit is to be attached to the representations of land- lords respecting the happiness of those for whom they wish to legislate. The disparity between the different classes of society was less in those ancient times to the philosophic eye, (" meat, fire, and clothes,") when science and art were not directed to forward the personal comfort of the wealthy, and the rich had no mode of getting rid of their riches but by having them eaten up. The extent of land compared with the numbers of the people might also render subsistence sufficient in a coarse kind of food, when the terrible "famines" of those ages did not depopulate whole countries : but the necessity of salting the winter's provision even in such a family as the Earl of Northumberland's,* since the wretched husbandry of the age could not feed the animals, clearly indicates the shifts to which the villains must have been put ; the revolts of Wat Tyler and Jack Cade show the wretchedness to which they were exposed ; the appalling number of executions in the reign of Henry the Eighth, and the constant complaints of " sturdy beggars," ending at last in the Poor-law of Elizabeth, sufficiently prove what the state of the masses must then have been, and support the general opinion of histo- rians that much distress arose from the suppression of the monasteries. The agreement of authorities is not, indeed, an absolute proof of truth when opposed to strong counter-evidence; but it is not to be overthrown by little more than assumptions.
This view of the millennium—that was favoured by the anarchy of the Heptarchy, the ravages of the Danes, the oppressions of the Normans, the contentions of the Barons with the Crown, and the civil wars of the Roses—is put forward, apparently, to support an opinion of Mr. Thorn- ton that wretchedness and comfort reciprocally propagate their like ; and, after fancying the happiness, he accounts for its continuance by the slow growth of population in those times from the prudential prosperity of the people. We rather think that the foreign, Scottish, and civil wars, the frequent recurrence of plague, pestilence, and famine, with the fearful mortality among children owing to the ignorance of the people and the false medioal views then prevalent., were much more effectual " preventive checks " than the prudence arising from prosperity. The closest and the widest survey of history tend to show the progressive advance of man ; and we much fear that the millennium of the poor, which Mr. Thornton places between the years 500 and 1500 A. D., never yet existed on a national scale.
* Household Book, used by Hume. Colonization, as a remedy, Mr. Thornton rather "damns with faint praise." His own panaceas are free trade, small farms, and cottage allot- ments, for Great Britain; and in Ireland, in addition to a fixity of tenure, be would give a right of property in the waste lands to whomsoever re- claims them, paying the owner for their present value. Free trade is now about to be tried ; and we believe it will be highly beneficial, by introducing a more uniform price of food, making. this country the centre of the corn-trade of the world, preventing the ruinous derangements of the currency consequent upon the export of gold, besides lowering the price of provisions and inducing a more extensive foreign trade : but if it fulfil what Mr. Thornton predicls, we shall be most agreeably sur- prised, and begin to believe in modern miracles. Smaller farms than those now in vogue might perhaps be desirable, because we believe nine- tenths of the farmers have not capital at all proportioned to the land
they occupy ; and capital is the true test. If a man, for example, has but one team, and his land requires two, his farm is clearly too large for him ; as, on the other hand, two teams, with means and appliances in proportion, may often be more profitably used by one master than by two. Cottage allotments are rather an aid than a basis; and their work- ing seems to depend upon a favourable conjuncture of circumstances ; whereas a national panacea must be able to work itself, when once set a going. The proposition for Ireland deserves more consideration. Facts seem to show that the industry of the Irishman, animated by hope, will reclaim land that would not pay the capitalist. In this case, the Irish waste lands afford the same outlet in degree that the Americans pos- sess, (though very far short in kind,) if they were resumed by the State and thrown open under some regulation : and the doing of this might afford employment to Sir Robert Peel when the Free-trade question is settled. But we believe, after all is said and done, some well-con- sidered national plan of colonization, which shall facilitate but not force removals, and assist but not prompt the Colonies in improvements to lay open districts for settlement, will be necessary as an aid to keep down our home population, always on the verge of excess, liable to be stimu- lated by a flush of prosperity, and defeating every prospect to perma- nently raise the condition of the mass. Colonization is, in fact, a national " issue " to carry off the " humours." Mr. Thornton may call the misery whose particular description he introduces by the following pas- sage an " extraordinary condition" ; but as any check to manufacturing, prosperity, from war, foreign failures, change of fashions, &o., will pro- duce it, we cannot consider it a wholesome state of the population when the people are exposed to such a visitation, _lasting for years : it is from the argument that towns are not over-peopled.. "It scarcely ever happens that any class of townsmen are worse paid than hus- bandmen, unless their wages have been depressed below their former level by peculiar causes; but an example has been very lately exhibited (1838. 42) of such a depression, affecting the whole body of labourers in many English, towns, which deserves to be particularly noticed, in order to prevent its being confounded with the ordinary condition of our urban population. "A very large proportion of the workpeople resident in English towns are engaged. in manufactures. Using this term in its common and restricted but not very easily defined sense, as distinguished from handicrafts, and as denoting only part, of the processes whereby the raw produce of the earth is converted into fabrics for man's use, more than 400,000 male adults, and a still greater number of females and young persons, are so employed. A short time back the greater part of this vast multitude seemed to be sunk in the lowest depth of misery. Thousands were absolutely unable to procure employment, and might be seen standing in con- strained idleness about the streets; or might be found in their dismal homes, bending over a scanty fire, their heads sunk on their breasts, and surrounded by pale emaciated beings, imploring them for food, which they knew not where to seek. Others, somewhat less wretched, were able to obtain work, but only irregularly, and at greatly reduced wages. Scarcely anywhere was there an individual wholly unaffected by the prevailing distress, and who did not perceive its presence at least in some diminution of accustomed comforts. These expressions are no rheto- rical exaggerations introducedfor the sake of effect. The subject is too serious for such trifling. They are a plain and temperate representation of the recent condition of English operatives, (the modern appellation for manufacturing labour- ers); and are supported, as will immediately be seen, by the minutest and most trustworthy evidence."
Our account of this book will almost indicate its character. Over- Population and its Remedy is rather a skilful and a clever than an able or profound work. Mr. Thornton can select with tact, and present with agreeable clearness the facts which are necessary to support a view ; he can also apply statistics with considerable keenness to establish a fore- gone conclusion or subordinate argument; and, unlike many economical writers, he does not overload his subject. But he cannot be trusted to discover truths, or to settle disputed and complex questions. Nor is his decision even upon single subjects to be received so implicitly as the con- fidence of his manner would bespeak. He thus disposes of the much- mooted question, what will be the price of provisions under a free trade? " Elaborate calculations have been made with the view of ascertaining the probable reduction of price which would be effected by the free importation of foreign provisions; and very different results have been obtained at di; ..famt times, corresponding with the varying opinions and wishes of the calculators. The Oda.- takes of conjectural estimates may, however, be avoided, if any country can be found situated in other respects like Great Britain, but receiving a large portion of its food from abroad, by means of a trade unshackled by fiscal burdens. This is the case with the Islands in the British ChanneL Guernsey and Jersey do not produce a fourth part of the corn consumed by their inhabitants, and are principally supplied with it from France, Denmark, and Prussia. France also furnishes them with fruit and poultry, and Holland with cheese. The freight of the two most important of these articles from the exporting countries is certainly not lower, and is probably higher, than it would be to Great Britain. It is therefore our customs-duties alone that make corn, foreign cheese, and in general all sorts of provisions that will bear keeping, dearer in thus country than in Guern- sey and Jersey, where their price is commonly about one-sixth part lower than with us. Consequently, most kinds of food might at once be made about one- sixth cheaper by the removal of the imposts now levied on importation from abroad."
The fact may turn out to be as stated; but, to support the conclusion of Mr. Thornton, it must be shown that the proportionate demand of Great Britain would not exceed that of the Channel Islands, or that the foreign supply would be exactly equal to the increased demand.
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