BOTANY, FORESTRY, AND HERBALS.*
THREE books recently published treat of plants from the scientific, the commercial, and the artistic points of view. The first is a history of botany, the second a manual of forestry, and the third a selection of figures from sixteenth- century herbals.
A scientific work like Dr. J. Reynolds Green's History of Botany, 1860-1900, is unfortunately too technical for a critical review in these pages, but the subject is of sufficient interest for us to notice an excellent and much-needed book. The chapters on alternation of generations and the morphology of the flower are particularly good. In writing what is a continuation of Sachs's History of Botany, 1530-1860, Dr. Reynolds Green divides his subject under the heads of morphology, anatomy, and physiology. The author's studies as a vegetable physiologist have led him to devote half the volume to physiology, which is more than a fair share, even remembering the strides which that branch of botany has made in the period. Perhaps the pur- pose of those of our readers who take an interest in scientific botany will best be served if we summarise in plain language the general introduction and conclu- sions of the book. At the beginning of the period two fundamental theories were still held by most botanists. The one was the theological doctrine of special creation, which involved the constancy of species ; the other was the fanciful doctrine of metamorphosis which Goethe propounded. The labours of Darwin slowly but surely destroyed the first. The second was greatly modified when, after much discussion, it was realised that the changes in the different parts of a plant were adaptive and could be traced to the environment. Two names stand out conspicuously at the beginning of our period. They are of course those of Darwin and Hofmeister. The influence of the former in every branch of biology is too obvious to need more than a mention. Hofmeister's investi- gations showed a uniform organisation running through the whole vegetable kingdom. He broke down the barrier between cryptogams, or flowerless plants, and phanerogams, or flowering plants. He proved that the reproductive mechanism in both groups points to development from simple to higher forms. All scientific knowledge resolves itself into classification ; and it is now universally recognised among botanists that phylogeny, or line of descent, supplies the key to classification. At the same time the barriers between • (1) A History of Botany, 1880-1000: being a Continuation of Sachs' "History of Botany, 15304860." By J Reynolds Green, Sc.D., &a. Oxford : at the Clarendon Press. [9s. 55. net.]—(2) The Practice of Forestry. By Percival Trentham Maw. London T. Fisher UlliVin. [17s. net.1—(3) The Craftsman's Plant-Book. By Richard G. 1:1eittan. lion. A.R.C.A. London: Chapman and Hall. (Zs. net.1
animals and plants have also been demolished. Before 1860 among botanists living matter had received the name of "protoplasm." The protoplasm of botanists was seen to be identical with the " sarcode" of zoologists. Life apart from living matter ceased to have any meaning. The border-line between the lowest animal and lowest vegetable organisms was obliterated. The main differences between the higher animals and higher plants were attributed to the latter being incapable of movement from place to place, while the others are constructed with a view to locomotion.
A third great name must be added to those of Darwin and Hofmeister. Julius von Sachs is called by Dr. Reynolds Green the "father of modern botany," which is pardonable if it be an exaggeration. The impetus he gave to study extended from Wiirzburg to the rest of Europe, and his pupils in England have been notable. He died in 1897, conspicuous as a teacher and investigator among the foremost botanists of the century. At the middle of the nineteenth century anatomy was perhaps the branch of botany most studied. This led to the development of an almost new science, cytology, or the study of cells. The importance of cytology at the present day, the light which it will probably throw on the most obscure problems (such as the origin of life, heredity, and the causes of variation), can hardly be exaggerated. The theory of the cell as the unit of life has revolutionised biology. The credit may be attributed as much to Schleiden, a botanist, as to Schwan, a zoologist. Linnaeus had denied the power of feeling to plants, and made that one point of difference between them and animals. Now that the nature of living substance is better appreciated, that sup- posed difference is no longer recognised. Great advances have been made in studying what used to be called "irritability," but which many vegetable physiologists speak of preferably as " sensitivity " in plants. The main difference between the higher animal and the higher vegetable life is the presence of green colouring matter, called chlorophyll, in plants. This, under the influence of sunlight, becomes a means for turning mineral into organic matter. Plants have a power of feeding on mineral matter, which power animals lack. Animals must feed on plants or on other animals, which in their turn have fed on plants.
No account of botanic work in the last half-century would be complete without a mention of bacteriology. The study of parasitic bacteria, as the origin of diseases, which Pasteur inspired, is likely to do more direct good to humanity than any other branch of the science of botany. It has become a new science. Besides the names we have mentioned, it would be idle to attempt a catalogue of the others referred to by Dr. Reynolds Green. Those of Germans stand pre-eminent, and their labours have easily surpassed those of French and English botanists during the period. But the race of botanists of both sexes is being recruited all over the civilised world. Serious botanical researches are now vigorously and effectively prosecuted in America and in Japan. Since 1860 the microscope and the microtome (for cutting thin sections of vegetable tissue) have reached a perfection that seemed impossible to attain. The laboratory and the botanic garden are recognised as means of study which should be closely united. The new branch of botany called "ecology," or the study of plants in natural surroundings, is proving attractive. Dr. Reynolds Green ends with a lengthy biblio- graphy. Some of the works are books by masters, but many are scattered papers by students pursuing the most varied researches. Both are important, but the difficulty of dealing with these numberless detached memoirs must have been great. It is, however, by means of scattered and extremely specialised monographs or scientific papers that botanic work is now being done. The most surprising omission from the bibliography is Dr. Scott's Studies in Fossil Botany. It is a standard work that has certainly exercised more influence than the works of Seward, Schenck, and Zeiller which are referred to in the chapter on palaeo- botany. Another omission may be by design. There is scarcely any mention of heredity, and, so far as we recollect Menders labours are not even referred to. The most serious criticism comes now. The value of the book is impaired by the index, which is so bad as to be almost useless. To publish a history of botany at the Clarendon Press with an index like the one before us is by no means creditable to those who may be concerned. We pass now to forestry, or plants viewed from their com- mercial aspect. The Practice of Forestry, by Mr. Percival Trentham Maw, is a well-arranged, comprehensive, and useful work. We do not doubt that it will be of service to land agents and landowners who want a book which covers much ground and leaves little unsaid that can be of use. We will deal first with the financial aspect of afforestation. Mr. Maw, who was at one time Professor of Forestry at Cirencester, and has also been a land agent, manages to combine practical and scientific views on forestry. No one can acquire a knowledge of the subject without studying the experiences of others, because life is too short. The so-called "practical forester," as he truly points out, often has no qualification except garrulous ignorance. But as regards education, he holds that British foresters can only learn their forestry in this country. The yields of timber and the prices that will be obtained are matters of the greatest uncertainty. It is there- fore of the highest importance to adopt correct actuarial principles when considering British forestry finance. An extremely interesting chapter is devoted to contrasting fallacious and correct methods of calculating the returns to be expected from tree-planting. Mr. Maw's conclusions are as follows :—Unless there be a substantial rise in the price of timber, there is little inducement to plant maiden land with oak, beech, the pines, Norway spruce, or silver fir. If the land were to be had rent free, the planting would not pay more than 3 or 3} per cent. on the cost of establishing the young crops. On the other hand, Douglas fir, black poplars, ash, larch, and Spanish chestnut will often pay well, returning 3i to 4 per cent. on the cost of planting, and the equivalent of a handsome rental for the land. It is always advisable to replant land from which a timber crop has been removed, for the land is practically valueless except for tree- growing, and the expenses of replanting will be less than on maiden land. So whenever natural regeneration or the planting of seedlings can be adopted, it will be possible, as a rule (even in the case of oak, beech, the pines, Norway spruce, or silver fir), to pay a small interest and the equivalent of a small rental. The effects of afforestation on the labour market are also worth consideration. The labour expenses per acre are very much below those incurred on an ordinary mixed or grass farm. Hence afforestation of land at all adapted to farming will result in diminishing the amount of labour employed in the district. As relief works for the un- employed forestry presents no advantages. In frost planting is suspended. There is seldom suitable land near big towns. If agricultural land is acquired, labour is displaced. Casual labour of unskilled hands can be little used in forestry. It must not be supposed that Mr. Maw is pessimistic as to the prospects of British forestry, though he predicts that "any attempt at afforestation of waste lands on any large scale must, if the present prices which are obtainable for timber remain unaltered, result in a colossal failure, unless, indeed, money can be borrowed at a very much lower rate of interest than is at present possible." There are useful chapters in the book on forest systems, the nursery, planting operations, timber measuring, and the marketing of woodland produce. The sylvicultural notes on timber trees give much practical information in a condensed form.
We turn now to herbals. The Craftsman's Plant-Book is a handsome, attractive, and well-produced volume which lovers of plants and artistic decorators will welcome. Mr. Richard Hatton's object is to render available the best of the engraved drawings of plants which have made the herbals of the sixteenth century famous. They are full of decorative suggestion. In this thick quarto volume will be found an excellent selection, some after old woodcuts, some after copperplates, reprinted on pleasant paper which was chosen to take colour well for those who wish to paint their copies. The herbals from which a choice has been made begin with Otto Brunfels in 1530, and end with Crispin de Passe in 1614. This covers the finest books for designers. To the botanist the quaint figures are pleasing. Mr. Hatton has contributed chapters on the herbalists' works, on the use of plants in design, and on Jacobean floral ornament. He has also provided the plates with botanic notes, which need not be scientifically criticised. The classification from Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom (1845) has been adopted ; but the result is a charming book which renders accessible many figures of plants from rare and costly old works.
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