CHINA OPENED.

MR. GUTZLAFF, the author of these volumes, is a missionary to China, already well known for a narrative of his personal adven- tures in two coasting voyages along that country, as well as for his publication on Chinese history. The object of the present work is much more extensive than either of the author's previous productions,—embracing a view of the physical features of China and its dependencies ; a precis of its history, religions, and insti- tutions; an account of its commerce, arts, agriculture, and finances; a description of the manners, customs, and character of the people, together with a review of their language, literature, science, and philosophy. In the execution of so extensive a design, Mr. GUTZLAFF has the advantage of familiar acquaintance with his subject, ac- quired by personal observation of China and the Chinese, and by a study of the works of his predecessors both native and fo- reign. Unluckily, however, he is unable to turn these advantages to full account, wanting many qualities both of nature and art. He is deficient in comprehension of view ; he has scanty powers of generalization ; and beyond the externals of the individual object before him, his perception is weak, and not always true. These intellectual failings, not remedied by cultivation, often involve the writer in apparent contradictions, which every reader will not be able to reconcile, even where they happen to be reconcileable ; they have sometimes prevented him from selecting the most worthy or the most striking objects for description ; whilst a lack of lite- rary judgment and taste has caused him to jumble together things of unequal magnitude and importance, and to overlay his subject with a variety of collateral matter, till the principal is lost sight of in the accessories. Perhaps, too, there is an undue profes- sional disposition to trace things up to Divine interference, whin the human causes are sufficient to account for them. Hence, though containing a good deal of important information, and sug- gesting various reflections, China Opened is rather to be studied than read, and will be studied to most advantage by those who can weigh and test the statements of the author. This criticism especially applies to his dese'ription of the physical character of China ; which, instead of presenting the natural and artificial features of the country, consists of enumerations of lati- tudes and longitudes, lengths and breadths, or a dry catalogue of uncouth names suggestive of neither ideas nor associations to Englishmen, and the proper place for which is a map or a table. The topographical survey of the various countries belong- ing to the empire is distinguished by similar defects, except where the author describes places he himself has seen. The account of the natural productions, is somewhat more attractive, but contains not much beyond the summaries of a bo.1 of geography ; and the chapters on the manners and customs, although containing many novel points, are wanting in pith aid conclusiveness. The history is clear, and sufficient for its purpose ; and the many chapters on the government and its ramifications, though minutely dry, are full of statistical and curious details, as is likewise the account of the foieign commerce. Of the review of literature and science, the best perhaps that can be said of it is, that it is better than nothing. To the chapter on language we shall refer pre- sently. One of the most curious speculations in which the human mind can engage, is to trace the origin of national character,—to endeavour to estimate the respective influences of nature and custom ; conjecturally apportioning a share to the disposition of the race ; another to the physical circumstances of climate, soil, &e. and the pursuits which they generated ; a third to the influence of the national literature and institutions, as well as to the historical events with which the people have been connected ; though all these last must be taken with an allowance, as receiving an influence front the other causes. To approach this subject with even the appearance of success, requires the data of original authority ; and it is one good feature of Mr. GUTZLAFF's book, that points will be found scattered up and down its pages which throw a light upon this singular subject. The climate of China Proper is temperate, but neither warm enough to dis- pense with clothes, (when they can be got,) nor cold enough to prevent, by its severity, the subsistence of' a dense population. The land often yields a vast return to the laborious cultivator, but does not appear to possess that spontaneous fertility which fosters the lazy luxury of the Negroes, and it is not adapted to the nomadic life of the Tartars. Hence, a people settling in such a country, if sufficiently advanced in civilization to pursue the useful arts, to establish a certain degree of security for life and property, and to protect themselves from their neighbours, would naturally increase with rapidity, whilst "the pressure of popu- lation against the means of subsistence" would as naturally stimulate improvements in arts essential to corporal uses or to worldly wellbeing, in which alone the Chinese excel .71"---•,„ street, as much as possible, all prejudices of habit and edUc look only at the eternal nature of things, thehei‘i.teensewpirtahtdal in the belles lettres appear dry, literal, and feeble copie°suf--on:e monplace every-day lire; but their philosophy, national allowance, is distinguished beyond all others forQ:i wisdom and practical utility. The fine nits admit of a moreral-sl, gible test than literature, and in all the higher departments Chinese are very deficient ; but their mere mechanical culti pin sculpture is as excellent as their colours are in painting 4i; Which excellences are available in the immediate business life. In the useful arts, however, the Chinese, ages ago, eseeu;s'' all other nations, and, despite their stationary condition, equal rile;

in many things now. With them, irrigation, terraced eultiration -

manuring, and all the agricultural resources by which art over' comes natural obstacles, were first advanced to a state that eve; now leaves the most improved nations behind. " The Chinese- art of' husbandry," says Mr. GUTZLAFF, " may be explained in few words,—to keep the lands clean, and in fine tilth; to manute them richly, and make a farm resemble a garden as nearly as possible. No fields are laid down in pasture in order to be re, eruited, or are suffered to be fallow for even a quarter of a yesr lest any of the resources of' the soil should thereby be lost: gii; art of weaving seems indigenous to every country whose inhas bitants have advanced beyond the hunter's life; but China hit the best claim to have first. perfected the art, and raised it t36 manufacture ; even now her silk and cotton fabrics equal if net do not excel those of all other countries, in texture, colour, psi durability, although inferior in design. Ship-building, practical hydraulics, and many other mechanical arts, are with them g great antiquity. Paper they invented in the fivirsteceaninturwvaroet our sera; printing, gunpowder, suspension-bridges, umbrellaa and parasols, and the elegant manufacture of ire which has put within the means of most civilized nations an excellent substitute for the monarch's gold and silver plate, were, with the silk trade, given by China to Europe. As far as history records or well-grounded conjecture can penetrate, Chia has never possessed any privileged castes, nor has labour ever been considered degrading ; merit, or at least acquire. ment, has been the patent of nobility, which is open to all except persons of infamous life or birth.* Of unknown antiquity, they offer the singular spectacle of a nation obeying for 2300 years the instructions of a philosopher. With an empire more populous than that of the Romans, one written character, be the variety of dialogues what they may, serves for the communication of thought; and the laws or exhortations of the Imperial Council are easily read by three hundred and sixty millions of' people,—a vast popu- lation, hut of whose vastness the mind will have a clearer idea, if it reflect that the present generation of Chinese consists' of nearly as many persons as have lived in Great Britain since the creation of man.

The circumstances we have touched upon throw much light upon the Atheism of this people. A nation so early advanced in the useful arts, and possessing a written literature from 2500 to 3000 years ago, if not earlier, could scarcely be enthralled by any ab- surd and vulgar superstition. The struggle for subsistence, forced Upon all, would prevent them from giving the time necessary to a faith with ceremonials constantly occurring ; or from engaging in deep speculations upon a subject which, their sagacity taught them, unassisted reason could not resolve, and which would hare been productive of no worldly advantage. Mr. WILBERFORCE has recorded that Mr. PITT had not time to give much attention to theological matters ; and such seems to be the case with the Chinese, who are too busy to be religious. Mr. GUTZLAFF, in- deed, attributes to CONFUCIUS the Atheism and social qualities of the Chinese, as well as their political institutions : but such an achievement is beyond the power of any individual mind—not to mention that many parts of this great man's writings are taken from or founded upon those of his predecessors, by which no doubt he was in a measure formed. Philosophers sway mankind by dis- covering what is best adapted to their nature and circumstances, not by directing them to follow some laboured or artificial 'riventions of their own. The true merit of CONFUC I U S is the extraor-

dinary penetration by which he read the character of his country- men, and the skill with which he adapted his philosophical system to it.

How far the language of China contributed to influence the character of its ioliabitants—how far their character might react upon their language—is difficult to determine. But their national peculiarities are strongly expressed in their tongue, and appear to offer insuperable difficulties to the Missionaries; because a people so cautious, scrutinizing, and worldly-minded as the Chinese, will nut, like a more barbarous race, trust any thing to generalization; and their language fails to note accurately the nice distinctions requisite in scientific theology. Here is part of Mr. GUTZLAFF s account of it.

CHINESE SOCNIIS.

We might be almost led to suppose that the Chinese ancestry, after having produced 4S7 different sounds, despaired of the power of the organs of speech to make any additions to them. In ultnost every other language, there is a number of radicals, by the composition of which an immense number of words is formed ; yet this expedient never occurred to the Chinese. To what a state the oral medium of communication has been thus reduced, we cannot better show, than by producing some examples. The sound E Ins at least Lsoco signification's. It expresses to kill, to finish, by, barley, obstinate, to be pleased, 1 to communicate, to leave, gruel, clothes, to rely, posterity, barbarian, bet to

• Smelt as criminals, stageeplayers, the otTapring of courtesans.

cure o extirpate, disperse, incline, a chair, virtue, thought, intention, easy, , t o tilde, doubt, Esc. ; in fact, one might write a perfectly intelligible which h the sound E was employed. trIcIthis-sas- about Let a thionand significations ; it may mean to know, wisdom folly, to sm• .se effect, govern, pierce, impede, stop, foundation, toes, of, a branch, elegant, ass present, Esc. Several alof these sounds, moreover,. are scarcely to be distinguished from each rapidly pronounced; for histance, will till, see otter, especially whe.113,tfaelf.aaure scpei y p on Isitiogremge5yrtnagli ethelse imperflions, the ancients invented a system of intona- ise, and in many instances used two synonymous characters to express asingle idea.

The intonation is twofold—Ping, the even, and 'nib, the deflected. Ping is

eub.divided into tsing and cho—the iformi like the latter drawn out ; whilst the Tub is either shang, high, or s in I, e ti acutus ; keu, low, like the v srs 5. or juh, short and abrupt. Chi, dregs, has the tsing ; chi, to inquire, a's-eto's' ; coi, a branch, the acutus ; chi, to deceive, the acutue ; and cha, an elficisl letter, pronounced very abrupt, the jult or short sound. In the same ceder stands vi, forked ; i,

teeth ; ya, elegant ; i the second n order, and y convey. If each of the sounds had these five intonations, there would be '

at" to least 2,405 various words for expressing ideas ; but many have only one, two,

hree of them, and the treasure of articulated sounds amounts to about 1,500. With these the Chinese have to convey all their wants, and to communicate the most abstract sciences. However accurate the distinction, it falls very short of what is actually required, and the oral medium of communication remains deficient. A Chinaman marks, with the greatest ease, the difference of intonation, hut a foreigner has to encounter immense difficulties before he emi in any degree distinguish them. We may compare these intonations to our notes in music. Their existence is, however, to an unpractised ear almost perceptible, because the language, when spoken well, is always pronounced in a seeing tone.

The poverty to which the spoken language is reduced, is such auto occasion misunderstandings in sentences of the most frequent occurrence, and to make conversation so exceedingly monotonous as to comprise only the ordinary osi,c5 of life. Whenever any attempt is made to discuss more abstruse sub- jects, recourse must be had to ink and paper, and the speaker will be obliged either to define the sounds by synonymes, or write them down. The writer has often sat for hours and heard the Chinese telling stories ; these were either aceedingly simple and soon understood after cross-questioning, or the speaker vu obliged to use figures, in order to render his discourse intelligible. There sre no orators, nor do the masters of schools give oral instructions; and it would be next to impossible to preach sermons of any length, without fami. finning the auditors with the subject. Nothing tends so much to counteract the progress of civilization as the povorty of the oral medinm, and the conse- quent paucity of ideas. No new subject of any importance can be introduced ; and the human mind recoils from treating of things which are not understood. Reece, the Chinese are more sensual than their comparative state of' civilize. ties would lead us to suppose. Every thing beyond the range of sight is dif. kelt to be described by them, and even when represented it can be scarcely enderstood.

None of the cognate languages have carried this system so far. The Chi. Dm, by adhering so strictly to it, prove that they possess more refined organs Of hearing than any other nation they are, however, not musical, and know nothing about the harmony of sound beyond their own intonation. Foreign hogusges are with the greatest difficulty acquired by them; they are unable to pronounce a number of letters, especially a and 0., and two consonants at the &ginning of a word. Their curious way of forming words has insulated them entirely from other nations, and rendered many attempts to enlighten them abortive. If the Chinese were once to establish a parliament, the orators would be obliged to distribute their speeches to the members previously to pro. Bouncing. them. It would be difficult, if not impracticable, to carry on intel. 'Meal intercourse to any length, and to read lectures or discuss points in public.

Some of this is perhaps exaggerated, through the difficulty which a foreigner must feel in conversing in such a language. At all events, the Mandarin dialect is capable of expressing with pre- cision, just and elevated thoughts; as in this specimen of a trans- lation of the

ClIINERE NOTION 01' A GREAT MAN.

Ii He may be called a great man who, whilst in a prominent station in the State, occupies his rank in the empire, and practises the general and great prin- ciples—is benevolent, decorous, and just. If the people act conformah!y with his principles, he accords with them ; but if they deviate, he alone practises them. Riches cannot corrupt him, poverty does not move him, and grandeur and military display cannot intimidate him.'

It It may, however, be taken as a characteristic proof of the Chinese mind, that MT. GUTZL 17F conceives ARISTOTLE could be translated, but Hostsit certainly not. The nation has thought like philosophers, but not like poets.

The present condition of China has often struck us as bearing a strong resemblance to Ireland in the numbers of the people com- pared with the means of subsistence and the general poverty of the masses; except that the Chinese display more industry, adapta- bility, and resources, in snaking the most of what they have. How- ever dirty their dwellings, too, their fields are always clean : but Ill other respects part of this extract might apply to Ireland.

In domestic economy, they are not surpassed by any nation : there is no waste, no profusion in any branch ; and the most trifling things are turned to advantage, and the very offals are relished. Contentment reigns even smongst the wretched; they sit down to a meal consisting of a little boiled grass and potatoes with cheerfulness, because they know no better. However poor, they are fond of inviting a passing stranger, and offering hint a share of their meagre repast. Their dwellings vary much less than the extent of the empire would lead us to believe. Much depends on the mato i318 which can be procured on the spot. alillions of people live in small loud hovels, where granite dues not abound ; whilst in places where this is common they are almost entirely composed of solid rock. They possess great skill in cutting and joining it, so that the seam is hardly Visible. In the Southern regions, the poster classes live in huts made of kajan leaves. In woody districts the houses are built of planks. The foundation is not very deep, and commonly consists of granite. Bricks are made in great perfection by the Chinese. They join them together beautifully, so as to tiom triangles, squares, circles, figures of flowers, &c. ; which gives to the exterior a very finished appearance. It is a very general custom to raise a mud wall and Plaster it with bricks ; but houses of that description are soon soaked throtigh, and overthrown by gales. Thick houses are covered with thick ridges of tiles, with the convex part downwards, and the chinks by laying others athwart. The spars are rouud and that; upon these they either put thin bricks or Flillare tiles, well joined with mortar, so as to admit no rain. The Chinese are it pe- culisr people even in their mode of building ; the hearth is one of the first parts they construct, but they forget to add a chimney.

The interior of the houses of the poor is wretched enough, and such are by far the majority. They consist of one room, which serves the purposes of kitchen, sleeping apartment, parlour, and stable, the floor not being paved. In the cold regions a flue runs along die room, which serves as an oven for cook- ing the victuals and warming the apartment. The pigs lodge in the snuggest corners; and goats, asses, and colts, share the dwellings of their masters. Such are the hovels of the common peasantry. • • • In adorning their rooms they are equally economical. A few pictures hung around, occasionally a mirror, and a few grotesque drawings upon the white wall, are the most common ornaments. Lackered and polished wooden chairs, some tables, a couch, some painted or lackered screens, constitute the furniture. alud.houses are beautifully pasted with paper. The floors, which are generally paved with bricks, are covered with excellent mats, or in winter with carpets or felt. The houses are crowded with inhabitants, who must be content with a very little space. Europeans could not live in such narrow holes, bat China- men 'feel very little inconvenience from them. No class is remarkable for cleanliness; and the houses appear worse than stables if beasts have their abode in them. The inhabitants of the city keep their dwellings in better order, and merchants and shopkeepers excel in tastefully adorning their shops and laying out their wares; but there is, nevertheless, with much show, a waut of neat- ness in the interior of the building*.

The following account of Chinese elanship is new to us.

In tracing the way in which society is constituted, we shall be struck with its divisions into great families, who, though numbering many thousand mem- bers, all bear the same surname and consider one another as relations. These clanships resemble those of the Scottish Highlanders, though they do not strictly partake of the feudal system. There are in China about four hundred anti filly-four surnames, and consequently as many clans; thirty of these sur- names consist of two characters or syllables, whilst the rest are monosyllabic. All belonging to the same clan consider eadi other as cousins, and there exists a silent contract to help each other, as if related by the ties of blood. When the author became a naturalized citizen of the Celestial Empire, he very natu- rally entered a clan, and was suddenly surrounded with a host of cousins, who generally laid a claim to his charity, and occasionally very readily assisted him. No man is permitted to marry a woman of the same clan ; he must seek a bride in a different family, and thus acquire the privilege of uniting two surnames. Clanship is of very ancient date. It is said to have arisen when China was divided into many feudal slates; so that there were no less than 1,773. It is, however, far more probeble that it originated with the first progenitois of the human race who transmitted their names to their descendants. Though ;his institution has great disadvantages, it exercises a most salutary check on the measures of an arbitrary government. The most numerous dins in the various districts often combine to resist extortions and to terrify magis- trates into conceseions. If any member he unjustly prosecuted, the elan steeds forward and insists on the release of their kinsman. On the other hand, the smaller clans are in a most wretched condition; they haste to bear not only the oppressive measures of government, but the instate of the more powerful clans. The Chinese Government has often endeavoured to put down these asso- ciations, but it has never fully succeeded. This institution is too much inter- woven with the whole being of the nation to be overthrown by the mere exet- cise of despotic power. A magistrate who could sentence his cloilsnian to a heavy punishment, would be considered a monster, and be shunned by his supe- riors. There is in this respect more nepotism in China than in any other country. Confucius himself connives at committing an injustice in favour of relation. But even if Ile had not done so, the ties of blood amongst the Chinese are very strong; and the love of their relations, with utter indifference towards society at large, is almost constitutional. Mencius rejected with equal disdain egotism and general philanthropy, and taught that our undivided love ought to be bestowed on our relations. No one of his precepts has been so strictly fol- lowed as this.