BOOKS.

BARON VON HANTHAIISEN'S TRANSCATTCA.SIA.* 'NESE travels in the Russian provinces South of the Cauoasian range possess a twofold source of interest. The object of the author was to examine "the relations of man to the soil "; and if he does not accomplish this so thoroughly and so learnedly as might be, he collects a great number of facts in reference to the late and present social condition of the people, as well as to the tenure of land, the nature and extent of its cultivation, and various other subjects of an economical kind. A second, and under present circumstances a more material feature of the book, is the picture which it gives of the oppressive and retrograding effects of Russian rule. Baron Haxthausen has been charged with Russian leanings ; and, travel- ling as he did under official protection, and before the character of Russian 'racy was so exposed to Europe as it is, he probably took a more favourable view of the Imperial disposition than it de- serves ; as he certainly does of what he calls the destiny or mission of Russia in forwarding Christian civilization in the East. If his opinions, however, are too favourable, he neutralizes them by par-

ticular facts. Nowhere is there a more quiet picture of the effects of the Russian system of bureaucracy in crushing the liberty (though it may be a rude liberty) of the people at large, and trans- forming a free peasantry into serfs to attach their masters to Im- perial interests ; and, if the Emperor and the higher authorities really do desire to prevent these evils, (which may be doubted,) of their impotence against the interested corruption of the official class. The descriptions of the country and the people may have a further utility at present. If Russia is really to be crippled in reference to future mischiefs, it must be by blows from the Allies : she will not consent to cripple herself. When it comes to negotiating, Russia most assuredly will give up nothing that she holds. If, for instance, she is to be deprived of Finland, she must be driven out of Finland. If she is to lose the Crimea, the Crimea must be taken from her. If she is to be confined to the natural boundary of the Caucasus, which offers a defined frontier stretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian, as well as forms the geographical limit of Europe, her army must be forced from the occupation of the Transcaucasian provinces. Any one of these attempts may be diffi- cult; but in undertaking the war we undertook difficulties. The expulsion of Russia from these Asiatic provinces is perhaps the easiest of the whole if set about in earnest. The Circassians are at open war ; the other mountaineers imperfectly subdued; the Russians unpopular in Georgia ; a large part of the Black Sea coast is already evacuated; the army of occupation is threatened by Turkey on the West, by the Circassians on the North, no assist- ance is to be expected from Persia on the South ; the entire coast of the Black Sea is open to any force the Allies may choose to send thither. The country also is very productive in spontaneous or cul- tivated commodities for future commerce.

The countries lying between the Caucasus and the present bounda- ries of Persia and Turkey vary in races, religions, and geographical names. For a broad view they may be arranged into three divi- sions: 1. Mountaineers, with the Circassians at their head; 2. Georgians, including the Mingrelians and some other tribes; 3. Armenians. With the Georgian and Armenian Christians are in- termingled many Mehometans, and Pagans or something ap- proaching Paganism. Either naturally or from the influence of Russian despotism, there is great toleration exhibited, except be- tween persons of the same religion who differ a little from each other.

"In these countries no hostile feelings appear to exist between Mohamme- dans and Christians, nor between the various tribes. The Mohammedan Tartars, Circassians, and Persians, and the Christian Georgians and Ar- menians, inhabit the same villages, maintain friendly intercourse, and sometimes even eat together on the same carpet ; each, however, strictly com- plying with the requirements of his own faith, and adhering to their re- spective national manners, customs, and dress. Only between sects of the same religion—as between the Shuts and Sunnite Mohammedans, and those Armenians belonging to the National and to the Romish Church—is there enmity. All, however, avoid social intercourse with the Jews."

Except probably in the Celtic and Tartar tribes, the continents of the Old World seem everywhere to contain the germ of local self-government and municipal freedom. The Negroes meet in council at their village house ; the rural inhabitants of Hindos- tan have assemblies to regulate their local business, and something analogous to juries to determine disputed questions. It is the same in Persia, in Turkey, and the Transcaucasian provinces. Russia has even the outline of a county organization. These, of course, are constantly overridden or perverted by power. The Negro potentate exercises the right of might without encumbering the business with forms or negotiations ; an "enlightened despotism" turns these rural municipalities into fiscal instruments. Haxt- hausen found strong traces of the seeds of constitutional freedom in Georgia and Armenia; and he frequently compares them to Teutonic or Saxon institutions : a resemblance very probable, if the legion is the cradle of the European race. The original institu- tions of Armenia seem to our traveller the most simple and de- mocratic; those of Georgia the most varied and strongly feudal. Under the Russian rule the form alone remains, and that perhaps only when it answers an administrative purpose. In some of these countries, personal slavery was probably permitted under Persian or Turkish rule, but classes were free : there were no ad-

* Transcaucasia. Sketches of the Nations and Races between the Black Sea and the Caspian. By Baron Ton Hasthausen, Author of .• Studien ilber die Innern ZustiMde Russlands." With Illustrations by Graeb. Published by Chapman and scripti glebm—the peasants were freemen. One of the first things the Russian bureaucracy did was to turn them into serfs ; in which of course they were assisted by the native nobles. Our inquirer cannot satisfy himself whether there was an endowed church in Mingrelia originally, but the Russians " have everywhere en- dowed the church livings with land." Their intrigues with the Armenian clergy from Constantinople to Calcutta have been fully exposed by Mr. Curzon lately. The general picture of Russian administration is thus drawn by Haxthausen. " In Russia the system of government is derived singly and simply from the theory and practice of modern bureaucracy. It is undeniable that cen- tralization and generalized forms of government in the higher departments of administration perfectly correspond with the character of the Sclavonic race, and are peculiarly adapted to Russia. But as there is a deep-seated contrast between the native character of the Germanic and Sclavonic races, a system which is quits adapted and even necessary to Russia, and is felt to be so by the mass of the people themselves, is wholly unsuited, and perhaps fatal, on the shores of the Baltic and in the provinces of the Caucasus.

" It is, as I have before observed, probable that serfdom did not formerly exist among the peasantry in Georgia and Mingrelia, and was not introduced until the occupation of these countries by Russia—not by law, which would never have been sanctioned by the Emperors Paul, Alexander, and Nicho- las, but in the ordinary course of administration. The Russian officials were accustomed to regard the peasants in their own country as serfs, and naturally looked upon those living under the nobles and princes in Georgia in the same light. The Crown peasants in Russia have been emancipated since the time of Alexander, and the same class in Georgia are consequently free like- wise.

"Attempts have in recent times been made, originating at St. Peters- burgh, to Check the spread of serfdom. A ukase was issued, which declares that in Georgia the presumption is against serfdom ; it must in each case be proved. But every person who was registered a serf previous to the 7th of August 1809, was to remain so. Moreover, whoever was recognized as a serf, by a judicial decree before the year 1836, on the ground of thirty years' service, is incapable of establishing any claim against it "The existence in all these countries of a certain system and constitution in family and communal life, arising out of manners and customs, and even sanctioned by law, however defective, (in Georgia, indeed, by the Vakhtang code of laws) was entirely disregarded by the Russian officials. They were far too indolent to study the existing social condition of the people, and fol- lowed only the laws and principles of administration to which they were ac- customed and which they brought from Russia ; whilst their rule was not a little marked by arbitrary conduct, with occasional extortion and spoliation; the superintendence and control being naturally much feebler and more in- effectual in the Caucasian provinces than elsewhere. The entire admhfis- tration was at the same time of a military character ; and all complaints, even those of a merely civil nature, were referred to the General in com- mand.

"As a natural result of this state of things, a bitter animosity to the Russians and the Russian Government grew up amongst all these Caucasian tribes. On occasion of a journey which the Emperor Nicholas made, in Oc- tober 1837, through these provinces, it is said that the tschinowniks, or officials, issued an order that no petitions should be presented to him. At Akhalzik, the inhabitants of an entire village were seen kneeling on the road in silence as the Emperor drove past, and this oireumstance recurred several times. The Emperor inquired of the people what it meant ; they re- plied, that they were forbidden to approach him with petitions : he told them it was not true, and that they might fearlessly present any petitions. Thereupon the people poured forth to meet the Emperor in such numbers, that during his journey only as far as Erivan, about fourteen hundred pe- titions and complaints were preferred to him."

An Imperial commission, at the head of which was Baron Paul von Hahn, was appointed to "ascertain the condition of all these districts with reference to national peculiarities, communal insti- tutions, and customary rights. He [the Baron] was at the same time commanded to lay down a comprehensive plan founded upon these inquiries for the future administration of the country." The plan received the Imperial sanction, and Von Hahn went to Tiflis in 1840 to carry it out. Our author evidently considers the Em- peror's approval was given in good faith. We should greatly doubt the fact; the scheme was far too large and liberal to meet the ideas of the Czar. But be this as it may, the result was the same. The Tsohinowniks were either ordered to undo all that Von Hahn did, or they were more powerful than the Emperor. "Such views could not be acceptable to the heads of the army or the class of Russian officials (tachinowniks) ; and immediately after the departure of Baron Hahn, intrigues are said to have been set on foot to defeat the execution of his scheme ; eventually it fell to the ground, and the old system was reiatablished in full force."

The high authorities fare no better: take the following sample.

"The Russian army in Transcaucasia, independent of that division opposed to the mountaineers, has a different position from that in Russia Proper. For many years past it has been merely an army occupying a compered country. The entire administration, as I have observed, is upon a winery footing : the country groans under this system, but the army, and especially the officers, adhere to it resolutely, their interest being too much implicated in its maintenance.

"The brave and noble General Zizianow, who I believe fell in the war with the Persians, was the first who expressed an energetic opinion that the civil administration ought to be separated from the military, in order to pre- vent the rankest abuses. For instance, if a military man of inferior rank were to be appointed head of a civil office, he could not resist the orders of his superior military officer. The latter arrogated the powers of the Khans in the Mohammedan districts, and thishas infinitely increased the oppression of the people. The Khans were hereditary ; they looked to the future, and consequently, for their own interest, their rule was not oppressive ; whereas the military officers thought only of the moment Even Field-Marshal Paskiewitsch reported his opinion to the same effect Two Senators were sent from St. Petersburg to investigate the matter, and found the greatest abuses prevailing. Baron von Hahn was then sent, and it has been already seen how all his efforts failed, and matters went on as before. It was too agreeable to the military, officers to have the disposal of millions without rendering any account. The consequences are, however, truly melancholy; notwithstanding a state of peace, the fertile lands of Georgia make no pro- gress in cultivation ; the peasant only tills just as much corn as suffices for his food,—if he grow more it will be taken from him I nay, he is even obliged to carry it himself to his oppressors : and hence, in spite of the richness of the soil, the army is provisioned by importations from Russia."

Besides the information on social, economical, religious, and poli- tical topics, the author has collected a good many national legends

and fables. With some of them the reader will be already ,fami- liar, either through the tales of the Arabian Nights, or German or Indian sources. The question of originality, however, is not very easy to decide : if we are Caucasians, literature as well as life may have come from those regions. Some of them may appear with variations, perhaps improvements; as in this well-known fable.

"THE INGRATITUDE OF MAN.

"A peasant who was one day ploughing found in a hole a serpent be- numbed with cold ; he took it up, and warmed it in his bosom, until it was restored, and then it tried to sting him. What!' said the peasant, 'have I saved your life, and you now want to sting me ? ' The serpent replied, 'I cannot do otherwise ; Nature has commanded us to sting men, for they are the most ungrateful of all creatures.' 'That is false,' rejoined the peasant, 'and three umpires shall decide the question.' The serpent consented. First a wise old horse was called on to give his judgment. 'It is quite true,' said the horse, that man is ungrateful : after serving him faithfully many years, and saving his life on the field of battle, he orders me to be killed, and sells my hide to the knacker.' An old buffalo was next appealed to, and he was of the same opinion as the horse. They then betook them- selves to a fox ; who whispered into the peasant's ear, 'Give me the best hen in your in the and I will help son out of the difficulty.' The peasant gave him a wink n the affirmative. Then the fox seated himself gravely in the judge's chair, inquired of the man the circumstances of the case, and said Show me the hole in which the serpent lay benumbed : it seems to me impossible that it could have found room in that hole' —I must see ; creep in.' The serpent had scarcely got into the hole, when the fox, aided by the peasant, filled it up with earth, and thus the peasant was saved. The next day Reynard came for the hen; but the peasant was asleep, and his servants heat the fox unmercifully, and broke one of his legs : he then pronounced the same sentence as the previous judges,—' Man is truly the most ungrateful of all creatures.' "